Types of Bonds in Brickwork | Stretcher and Header Bond

Bonds in Brickwork | Building Construction

In our previous articles, we discussed “what is a bond?” and “Rules for good Bonding”. Let us start our further discussion on types of bonds.

Different types of bonds are:

  1. Stretcher bond
  2. Header bond
  3. Facing bond
  4. English bond
  5. Flemish bond
  6. Dutch bond
  7. English cross bond
  8. Brick on edge bond
  9. Raking bond
  10. Zigzag bond
  11. Garden wall bond

Now we will proceed with our in depth discussion on “Stretcher bond” and “Header bond”.

What is a Stretcher Bond?

As the name itself suggests, stretcher bond is formed by laying bricks horizontally as stretchers on the faces of walls. The length of the bricks is along the horizontal direction of the wall.

Stretcher bond | Exposed Brickwork of a Restaurant
Stretcher bond | Exposed Brickwork of a Restaurant

Stretcher bond is used when walls of half brick thickness are to be constructed. The average size of the brick is 9cmx9cmx18cm. If the wall of thickness 9cm is to be constructed, then stretcher bond can be used.

Various types of wall constructions are done using this type of bond.

  • Sleeper walls
  • Partition walls
  • Division walls (internal dividers)
  • Chimney stacks

Bonds in Brickwork | Building Construction

Various types of bonds in Brick work

What is a bond?

When bricks are laid adjacent to each other forming a groove in between the bricks which is filled by cement mortar is called a bond. Bonding helps in even distribution of loads over a large area.

There are various types of bonds. Bricks are arranged in courses in such a way that they are tied together and also care is taken of the vertical joints that are formed when bricks are arranged in courses. The bricks used for the purpose of masonry construction are uniform in size.

Bilbee herring bond
Bilbee herring bond

The rule is, “Vertical joints of the successive courses of bricks should not coincide, that is, a continuous vertical joint across the wall should be avoided since it will gradually result into cracks development.” The strength and stability of the wall is less as compared to the properly bonded brickwork. Improperly arranged bricks forming continuous vertical joints are also called “unbounded walls”.

Like I mentioned earlier, there are various types of bonds; these bonds are distinguished by their appearance which basically means their bonding style (fashion in which bricks interlock to tie themselves together).

Read more

Bending Moment and Fixed Moment Calculations

Bending Moment and Shear Force diagrams

What is Bending Moment?

The element bends when a moment is applied to it. Every structural element has bending moment. Concept of bending moment is very important in the field of engineering especially Civil engineering and Mechanical Engineering.

Unit of measurement: Newton-metres (N-m) or pound-foot or foot-pound (ft.lb)

Bending moment is directly proportional to tensile and compressive stresses. Increase in tensile and compressive stresses results in the increase in the bending moment. These stresses also depend on the second moment of area of the cross section of the element.

What is Shear stress?

Shear stress is defined as the measure of force per unit area. Shear stress occurs in shear plane. There are many planes possible at any point in a structure which can be defined to measure stress.

Stress = Force/Unit area

Example: Bending Moment and Shear Force Calculations

Frame diagrams | Bending moment and shear force calculations
Frame diagrams | Bending moment and shear force calculations

Simply supported bending moment

Mab = wl2/8 = (22×4.14×4.14)/8

= 47.13 KN-m

Mbc = wl2/8 = (22×4.14×4.14)/8

= 47.13 KN-m

Read more

Types of Construction | Building Construction and Design

Building Construction | Civil Engineering and Design

Construction of buildings can be divided into three main categories:

  1. Load bearing construction
  2. Composite construction
  3. Framed construction

But among the three types, framed construction is widely used for all kinds of constructions.

An engineering structure is an assembly of number of elements transferring the loads and providing a form space to serve the desired function.

Building Construction and Design
Building Construction and Design

The structural design is a science and art of designing, with economy and elegance, a durable structure is that which can safely carry the forces and can serve the desired function satisfactorily during its expected service life span.

The entire process of structural planning and designing requires not only imagination and conceptual thinking but of practical aspects, such as relevant design codes and byelaws, backed up by aple experience, institution and judgement.

The process of design commences with planning of a structure, primarily to meet the functional equipment of the user or client. The functional requirements and the aspects of the aesthetics looked into normally by an architect while the aspect of safety, serviceability, durability and economy of the structure for its intended use over the life span.

What is a building?

A building can be defined as a structure consisting of walls, floors, education, business, manufacturing, storage, hospitalization, entertainment, worship etc.

Normally all building are constructed according to drawings and specifications prepared by architects. Each city has prescribed building bye-laws to which building must confirm. The building bye-laws lay down norms like minimum front, side and rear backs, minimum height and area of habitable rooms, kitchen, bath, minimum area of windows, width of staircase etc, apart from respecting the bye-laws the building design should ensure optimum utilization of built-up space, thermal comfort, proper ventilation, desirable illumination and acoustical characteristics and it should satisfy the functional requirements of people who live and work in the building.

Read more

Causes of Foundation Damage and Retrofitting | Settlement in the ground

Causes of Foundation damage and Retrofitting 

In one of my previous articles, we discussed various steps in which the survey of the foundation has to be done in order to be considered for retrofitting.

In this article, we will discuss various reasons or causes for the damage of the foundations.

Types of foundation damage can be classified as follows:

Erosion

  1. Natural rock
  2. Brick

Rot

Insects

Moisture damage

  1. Frost wedging
  2. Salt bloom

Settlement in the ground

  1. Groundwater lowering
  2. Limited bearing capacity of the ground (land)
  3. Uneven bedrock depth
  4. Excavations performed below the foundations and poor quality of backfill
  5. Increased load on the ground leading to failure
  6. Damage to the neighbouring houses
  7. Horizontal movement occurring in the ground

 Frost heave/adfreezing

Alum shale

Now we will move on with the discussion in detail on the types of foundation damage occurring due to Settlement in the ground.

Lowering in the Groundwater level

When the buildings are built on compressible soils, the resulting stress on the soil causes the soil to compress. Raft foundations are used in these kind of soils.

Since the soil undergoes compression the upper portion of wooden piles rot when groundwater level sinks.

There are various conditions which can cause the changes in the groundwater level or pore water pressure. They are as follows:

  • Ice Static Rebound
  • Dewatering (seen in cities)
  • Ditches and pipes below the groundwater level
  • Deep Foundations and Basements (causing further drainage of the ground
  • Tunnelling
  • By the removal of foundation sills
  • Construction of non-permeable surfaces such as roads, pathways causing the least amount of natural precipitation
  • Use of deciduous trees should be avoided in areas with low groundwater. They require a lot of water for their growth. They pull all the water that is available around them causing the lowering of groundwater.

Building Materials | Use of Carbon-negative Cement in Building Construction

Carbon-negative cement | New revolutionary Building material

Carbon-negative cement…?? Sound different, doesn’t it?

Have you ever realized how much carbon is emitted because of using concrete in the construction of buildings, highways, dams, bridges etc?

Well, here’s an answer to that. It is found that out of the 100% carbon dioxide emissions, 5% of the emissions are caused by human activities. Majority of the carbon emission is caused by usage of concrete in the constructions. How? Cement is an indispensible ingredient used for making concrete. Cement is made by baking limestone and clay powders under intense temperatures (high temperature). The intense heat which is required for the production of cement is achieved by burning of fossil fuels which in turn release large amount of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Building Construction | We can just imagine to what extent the carbon dioxide would be released into the atmosphere
Building Construction | We can just imagine to what extent the carbon dioxide would be released into the atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide is also released when the conversion of limestone takes place in the kilns. This conversion is called “Calcination”. It has been observed that the amount of carbon dioxide emitted during calcination is much higher than that which is released due to burning of fossil fuels.

Recently, a British company called “Novacem” came up with this concept of manufacturing ‘carbon-negative’ cement that absorbs more carbon-dioxide than it emits over its entire life cycle.

Read more